ENG 328: The Novel to Jane Austen
The travel narrative genre dominated literature in the 17th century as it was viewed as an educational resource. The English Empire had transitioned into the scientific revolution in hopes
of improving natural knowledge. Society had values naturalists, philosophers, and scientists going against their previous ideals of faith. This new way of reforming society had changed the literature they had once valued. Thus the rise of travel narrative as they were seen as educational on new lands expanding the knowledge of high-status educated men. Alphra Behn makes her mark as a female writer expanding the genre while adding her own female pen to describe the life of Oroonoko.
Travel narratives, such as Hans Sloane’s A Voyage, set the framework for Aphra Behns Oroonoko as they follow the observational penmanship for readers. Typically written in prose, the authors conduct immense immersive research of their chosen location for a detailed report in their narrative. Travel narratives at the time took place in a location outside of their home, in most cases England. A key detail that quantifies a travel narrative is the author’s observations of the location. The accounts are inscribed with a level of detail for the reader to imagine the land for themselves. For instance, Sloane had traveled to, “Jamaica, the Town of Port Royal,” as it was, “towards Liguance runs a narrow Neck of landy ground about three Miles long” (Sloane p. 6). Written to feel like a long summary, the asymmetrical power of the narrator determines what is to be retained. This was a time when travel narratives were highly respected and read by educated men and women of Europe to self-improvement of their knowledge. As typical authors of travel narratives are naturalists or explorers, they write with a neutral eye. “Many of the Negros, being Slaves, and their Pofterity after them in Guinea, they are most easily treated by the English here, than by their own Country-People” (Sloane p. 5) illustrates the objective viewpoint the author must carry. Whatever the writer’s personal or political views are on slavery, in this case, they must write from an observational standpoint in the name of research. This goes for religion, social practices, and trade.
As one can assume with writing with an observational neutral eye, authors of the travel narrative describe all aspects of the location in grave detail. Writing about the people they encounter, the plants, animals, and the religion of the region. The exotic land they discover is a marvel in the atmosphere as they transcribe the environmental features of the region as they differ from their homeland. “And of this [Coral], as the manner of growth, there is very great variety, the Chief mark of it being from its colour and folidity; the most remarkable varieties being in the underparts…” (Sloane p. 9). As the narration is essentially one long summary of their visit, the author’s involvement in the narrative is sparse. The author rarely inserts themselves into the narrative, unless for their point of view or travel. This does not minimize their importance, in fact only enhances it. Their involvement in the narrative itself serves as the facilitator, or body, in which the readers immerse themselves to view the world they traveled. Creating this distance between themselves and the subjects gives them control of what they narrate.
Behn illustrates the key qualities of a travel narrative through her observational notes of the life of Oroonoko. Following the format of traditional travel narratives, Behn recounts the setting in immense detail of Surinam in the West Indies of the port for the slave trade. “The Beads they weave into Aprons about a quarter of an Ell long, …, the Men wearing a long Stripe of Linen, which they deal with us for” (Behn p.9). She described the climate and practices she noticed of the Sumerians, especially their hierarchy. In the country of Coramantien, “a Country of Blacks so called, was one of those places in which they sound the most advantageous trading of these Slaves” (Behn p. 11), Behn describes the land at which the King rules who has as many wives as the amount of battles won. She maintained being a keen observer of the customs of the people accounting for their cultural practices of marriage, and being bestowed as one of the King’s wives. Illustrating this through the text when, “She [Imonida] told him, as she was Maid, …, but as by the Laws, he cou’d not; and for his Royal Goodness, wou’d not take from any Man his wedded Wife” (Behn p. 17), allowing for a better understanding of the King’s dominion of Coramantien further enlightening the readers of the region.
This set the stage for the world of the merchants trading textiles, while the Englishmen traded slaves and described them as mere products. Analyzing them objectively rather than showing humanity, thus showing the neutral eye Behn evokes to fit the travel narrative. From the context lectures, we learn that Behn favored the monarchy and was a royalist supporting sovereign power. Thus providing context to her neutrality of the slave trade as a means of maintaining order to authority. “Those then whom we make use of to work in our Plantations of Sugar, are Negro’s, Black-Slaves altogether; which are transported thither in this manner” (Behn p.11). Even as she expresses some sympathy towards the unfortunate treatments of Oroonoko and Imoinda later in the novel, she still retains her narrative power of neutrality towards slavery. “I entertained them with the Loves of the Romans, and great men, which charmed him to my Company…” (Behn 46) as she delayed their departure to stall for the Governor’s arrival.
Behn breaks out of the constraints of a travel narrative by merging both herself and a romance narrative into the plot. It is uncommon for authors of the travel narrative to insert themselves into the text, in order to maintain the neutrality of the observations. Behn contradicts this by opening up the narrative to, “I was my self an Eye-Witness to a great part, of what you will find here set down…” (Behn p. 8) introducing the reader to her involvement. As previously stated, the author of a travel narrative typically omits themself from the narrative to maintain objectivity of the topic. Behn contradicts this by including herself only to enhance the credibility and plot narrative. She maintains her observations of neutrality while describing the unfortunate circumstances that surround Oroonoko.
Behn transforms the narrative by adding a romance narrative of Imoinda and Oroonoko expanding the realm of possibilities of subject matter. Romance narratives are typically the foils to the travel narrative as they are mainly written by women, typically in verse rather than prose, and written for entertainment rather than educational purposes. Behn takes both qualities to create an immersive narrative that tackles both dramas while exploring a new land. The romance genre typically centers around characters about sovereigns, princes, and warriors, similar to the story of Oroonoko. “From that happy Day Caesar took Clemene for his Wife, to the general Joy of all People” (Behn p.40). Equiting the story with Behn’s female pen and writes the narrative of how she sees, the beautiful love tragedy as modestly as she sees fit. As a woman, she deems full authority over the romanctic tale while maintaining objectivity over the travel narrative.
In comparing Sloane to Behn’s work on creating a travel narrative, Behn focuses more on the doomed love story than the environment. She analyzes the people of the region as opposed to the plant life. Although she does not follow the traditional format for a travel narrative, Behn manages to analyze the region through the eyes of the customs and rituals of the people. Learning more about the life of Oroonoko and his battle for his love Imoninda, challenging the King, and their travels to the colonies created an immersive narrative. Both authors create enriching tales of the region examining different aspects of how to approach the genre.
1C) Criminal Biography from Moll Cutpurse to Caleb Williams
Criminal biographies were seen as a low-level form of literature. Commonly written over
collective pieces of literature of writing during that time, the London underbelly was seen as a promiscuous unsuitable area. A prominent location in London during the 18th century was Newgate Prison as it held people awaiting trial, debtors, and people awaiting execution. The prison had unsuitable conditions and overcrowding, even leaving a fee for basic amenities. This disparity around the criminal underworld arose a new form of literature to appease the general masses, the criminal biography.
The criminal biography genre arose in 18th-century London as a reflection of urban disparity. Illustrating the drunken debauchery of London, novels under the genre mirrored characters of previous harlots, thieves, and petty criminals. Authors of criminal biographies were typically anonymous or used pseudonyms and written in English prose. Criminal biography are written towards, and by, the lower class collectively. Alexander Smith’s Moll Cutpurse, A Pick-Pocket and Highwaywoman, is an example of the criminal biography genre. The novel written, possibly under a psydeom, illustrated the London Underbelly of Cutpurse’s journey and transformation. Even her name is not her own as, “Mary Frith, otherwise call’d Moll Cutpurse, from her ORingal Profession of cutting Purses” (Smith p. 320), she changed her appearance and adopted the moniker of “Roaring Girl”.
Characters in the genre often experience a lack of control in their lives as authors attempt to adapt fate into their writing. As if these characters are destined for misfortune, the criminal biography gives reason to their misdoings as a means to an end. Thus, leading the characters to be rendered lower than most in comparison to notable heroic characters. For instance, Cutpurse “went Dress’d in Man’s Apparel; which puts me in Mind how Hercules, Nero, and Sardanapalus are laugh’d at and exploded for their Effeninacy and degraded Dissolutness in this extravagant Debauchery” (Smith p.322) is compared to epic heroes for their outward appearance. Only to be described as a monster of men as “she was not made for the Pleasure or Delight of Man” (Smith p.322) but assumes the notion she was destined for the life of crime due to her stance in society. Her appearance, her economic status, and her surroundings place her in a destined position of debauchery.
The novel by William Godwin, Caleb Willaims, is classified under the criminal biography genre through the relationship between Caleb Williams and Mr. Falkland. Caleb Willaims is a poor man met with an ill fate of unfortunate circumstances bestowed upon him. Caleb can not control his life as Falkland is holding the reigns on him. Throughout the course of the investigation conducted by Caleb, he is led through the guided path Falkland leads him through. “My life has for several years been a theatre of calamity. I have been a mark for the vigilance of tyranny and I could not escape” (Godwin p. 5). Similar to Moll Cutpurse being compared to epic heroes, Godwin chose the name Caleb for the main character as a biblical allusion to Caleb. Coinciding with the genre of relating the characters to high, in this case, Holy, characters to show how low our subject is in comparison. “In the Bible Caleb was one of the men Moses sent to ‘spy out the land of Canaan’,…, but also ‘faithful’ to his master” (Godwin p. xxxiii). The life of, and overall narrative of, Caleb is an episodic narrative similar to that of a criminal biography. He matched the typical characters of the genre by presenting fairly ordinary people of the lower class. Caleb is a literary assistant to Falkland with nothing to his name, compared to Falkland who holds over a dominion of power and land. The narrative is episodic as it shows the unfortunate twists and turns of Caleb tumbling through life. “I have not deserved this treatment. My own concise witness in behalf of that innocence” (Godwin p.5), as Caleb pleads his innocence for his ill fate to come. Falling into a life of crime and later imprisonment, due to the misdoings of Falkland.
Rather than Caleb himself being the criminal, the narrative follows his path to uncovering the true crime of Mr. Tyrrel. This directly opposed the previous notion of the criminal biography genre as the subject of criminal behavior is cast upon Mr. Falkland. Although, due to Falkland’s power over the judicial system he escapes the law at multiple points. “Young man, take warning!… Why do you trifle with me? You little suspect the extent of my power” (Godwin p. 150). Mirroring the way an author of the criminal biography deems overall control of the character, Falkland is the author of Caleb Willaims’s ending. “This is the empire that man exercises over man” (Godwin p.188) illustrating the power Falkland poses over Caleb’s life and overall narrative. Dictating his choices, his investigation, and inevitably his doomed outcome.
In a typical narrative in the criminal biography genre, the main character is typically the one enacting the crime in the story. In the case of Caleb Williams, he is the one trying to uncover the murder of Mr. Tyrrel. He pleads his case towards the arrest of Mr. Falkland but his investigations only landed him in jail. Caleb’s character contrasts the general form as he is trying to do good but ends up in shackles. “I consulted my own heart, that whispered nothing but innocence,…, This is the object, the distribution of justice, which is the end of human reason” (Godwin p.189). His main motivation is justice while Cutpurse is survival and self-gain.
The criminal biography immersed many readers in the realities of the lower class as they are constantly met with misdoings. Caleb Williams follows the format of introducing a character who is met with misfortune but reintroduces the narrative by deconstructing who remains in control. Typically the author seizes control of the characters’ lives, especially that of a criminal biography, as the main characters are led by fate. They are destined for their situation, whether that be good or bad, they have no control. In this case, Falkland is the one in control of Caleb Williams’s narrative due to his immense power over the system. In the biblical allusion Godwin presents, if Caleb mirrors one of Moses’ disciples, Falkland mirrors God as he is untouchable and remains in control.
2A) What’s in an object? Analyzing Moll Flanders and Emma through Materialistic Ideals Throughout the novel of Moll Flanders, the unfortunate character is reminded of her
worth through the frequent occurrence of money. Moll relates the amount of money she has to her own worth. The more money she had, or wealthy her suitor, the higher she deems herself. It serves as a general motif as the amount both increases and decreases. The symbol of security is an object she holds onto during her travels and mirrors her ability to take care of herself. “Lifted me up, professing a great deal of Love for me; … and with that he put five Guineas into my Hand, and went away down Stairs” (Defoe p. 22) The amount of money is first present during her relationship with the older brother as he pays her for sex. $500 is what she is paid for her virtue, which is seen as a lot for her at the time. Through her marriages, affairs, and travels, her personal bank decreases to less than $200. Once she runs out of money, it is the birth of her life of crime as a petty thief where her bank increases to $700. Throughout the course, our perception of Moll changes based on how she spends and attains her money. It is then when she and James move to the plantation, that she is secure in her wealth. Moll is emotionally free to leave the life of crime behind as she is no longer counting her bank.
There is a correlation between the mention of linens and clothes to her relationship to her true self. It is mentioned in the prologue of Moll’s origin that her mother was arrested and sent to Newgate prison, “for a certain petty Thefit, scarce worth naming, Having an opportunity of borrowing three Pieces of find Holland” (Defoe p. 10). Holland, a fine piece of linen fabric, remains a reflection of the standards of women in society throughout the novel. The occurrence of fabrics serves as a reminder to Moll as a luxury she can not afford. One she tries to compensate for by finding a wealthy suitor to supply this need. She is taught at a young age needlework and sewing, a skill she uses to supply the nurse in exchange for service. The amount of linen a woman has also determines worth, as “fine clothes, gold watch, and a diamond ring or two had been all my fortune” (Dafoe p.68).
Moll retains a gold watch over her years of traveling. For a woman of Moll’s stature, a gold watch is seemingly uncommon and worth a lot. The wallet was a security for she knew she could sell it if needed, but relied heavily on her own money to stay afloat. Unfortunately, Moll is met with financial instability leaving her to a life of crime. When eating the Comrade, “helped me to, death in three sorts of Crafts, … taking off Gold Watches from the Ladies Sides” ( Dafoe p.159), the two are able to secure 120 gold watched between them only increasing her financial security at high risk. The gold watches give Moll the illusion of luxury, developing an arrogant attitude only to be brown down when attempting to steal one from a woman.
In society, a woman’s only way to succeed financially is to find a wealthy husband. That limits Moll as she either is left propelling for men or the life of crime. Moll valued material objects as a means to increase her status in society. The more items she possessed, the higher her value was. Ultimately, Moll’s obsession with materialistic items determining her value landed her in an untimely situation time and time again.
In in high society life of Highbury, lives Emma who interprets materialistic items differently one Moll Flanders. The carriages ridden in Highbury are typically by those in the higher class. The Woodhouses, The Knightleys, and Mr. Elton ride in carriages as opposed to the lower class. Carriages symbolize the desire and wealth of the upper class to enhance class boundaries. Mrs. Elton employs this “Without saying anything of our carriage, we should be able to explore the different beauties extremely well” (Aueten p.110) as she boasts about her wealthy carriage. Mr. Woodhouse always prefers to take the carriage contrasting Mr. Knightly who prefers to walk or ride horseback. “Mr. Knightley, to come out at this late hour to call upon us. I am afraid you must have had a shocking walk”, to he replied, “Not at all, It is a beautiful moonlight night” (Austen p. 4). This shows his character as he is comfortable in his position in society and does not need to flash his wealth.
In Emma’s naive matchmaking attempts to set up Mr. Elton and Harriett, she paints a likeness of Harriet to win Mr. Elton. The beautiful watercolor painting holds the virtuous reflection of Harriett that Emma has yet to realize. The painting only surfaced in two instances, the moment she painted it and when she later gave it to Mr. Martin as a token of her apology. The painting itself illustrates Emma’s desire to reshape Harriet to fit high society, going as far as to intentionally change her image. “As she meant to throw in a little improvement to the figure, to give a little more height, and considerably more elegance,…, the skill of the other, and the friendship of both” (Austen p. 21). Shaping Harriet’s destiny was Emma’s project throughout the novel that later blossomed into a friendship between the two.
In the unspoken rivalry between Emma and Jane Fairfax, the sender of the pianoforte is the deciding factor. During this period, women would often take the chance to show off their musical skills in the drawing room. “Soon as she entered the room had been struck by the sight of a pianoforte—a very elegant looking instrument—not a grand, but a large-sized square pianoforte” (Austen p. 87) similar to Emma’s perception of Jane Fairfax, recognizing her beauty but remained a symbol of her unspoken competition. A musical skill symbolized courtship and marriage, and one’s ability to perform one perfectly would result in talent and privilege. As Emma discovers that Frank Churchill has sent the pianoforte to Jane Fairfax, it changes her perception of class. Since Emma had saught Jane as less than her only to receive a gift worth more diminished her worth, “Jane Fairfax did look and move superior” (Austen p. 89)
One of the crucial aspects of the novel is the letters shared between the characters of Highbury. As most of the character’s appearance in the novel is limited, for Jane Fairfax and Frank Churchill, the letters serve as a way to observe their character through the reactions of other characters. Frank Churchill and Jane Fairfax are often perceived by other characters before their introduction, with their letters being their first appearance. For Emma, the letters from Frank Churchill are sacred as she praises them for his love for her. Mr. Knightly believes the letters to be a form of deception amongst women, especially Emma, and views him as “[Churchill] a person I never think of from one month’s end to another” (Austen p.62).
Austen portrayed objects in the narrative as a means of social status. This assured society place, especially for Emma who valued the security of her status. Emma was imamured with the marriage aspect of securing status attempting to match everyone up. Throughout the novel, the material items that were once held dear to Emma surely change as her perspective changes. The pianoforte was a reminder of her jealousy of Jane Fairfax only to celebrate her engagement to Frank Churchill. Emma had cherished the letters from Frank Churchill until meeting him and realizing his love for Jane. The carriages once held prestige in her eyes until the incident with Mr. Elton, where thereafter she walks similarly to Mr. Knightly. The progression of Emma’s character and values change with her relationships with those dear to her and lets down her guard to embrace her love of Mr. Knighlty.
Works Cited
Behn, A., & Lipking, J. (1997). The Royal Slave: The True History. In Oroonoko: An authoritative text, historical backgrounds, criticism (p. 13). essay, W. W. Norton & Company.
Sloane, H., Gucht, M. V. der, Savage, J., Carl, R. C. G., & Bonaparte, R. N. (1707). A voyage to the islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica, with the natural history of the herbs and trees, four-footed beasts, fishes, birds, insects, reptiles, &c. of the last of those islands ; to which is prefix’d an introduction, wherein is an account of the inhabitants, air, Waters, diseases, trade, &c. of that place, with some relations concerning the neighbouring continent, and islands of america … by Hans Sloane … vol. I. -II …
Maya Young 